Calorimeter/CaloRecGPU/CaloRecGPU/Helpers.h

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//
// Copyright (C) 2002-2024 CERN for the benefit of the ATLAS collaboration
//
// Dear emacs, this is -*- c++ -*-
//
 
#ifndef CALORECGPU_HELPERS_H
#define CALORECGPU_HELPERS_H
 
#include <utility>
#include <type_traits>
#include <cstring>
//For memcpy, of all things...
#include <string>
#include <cstdio>
#include <iostream>
#include <thread>
#include <mutex>
#include <shared_mutex>
#include <memory>
#include <vector>
#include <climits>
#include <new>
#include <cmath>
 
#if __cpp_lib_math_constants
  #include <numbers>
#endif
//This is the best way to have pi,
//but we provide a more manual alternative.
//Of course, there's also M_PI,
//but we wanted to ensure the type matched
//to prevent any GPU-based casting shenanigans.
 
namespace CaloRecGPU
{
 
#ifndef CUDA_AVAILABLE
 
  #ifdef __CUDA_ARCH__
    #define CUDA_AVAILABLE 1
  #elif __CUDA__
    #define CUDA_AVAILABLE 1
  #elif __CUDACC__
    #define CUDA_AVAILABLE 1
  #else
    #define CUDA_AVAILABLE 0
  #endif
 
#endif
 
#if CUDA_AVAILABLE
 
#define CUDA_HOS_DEV __host__ __device__
 
 
  CUDA_HOS_DEV inline void CUDA_gpu_assert(cudaError_t code, const char * file, int line, bool abort = true)
  {
    if (code != cudaSuccess)
      {
        printf("CUDA error: %s (%s %d)\n", cudaGetErrorString(code), file, line);
        if (abort)
          {
#ifdef __CUDA_ARCH__
            asm("trap;");
#else
            exit(code);
#endif
          }
      }
  }
 
#define CUDA_ERRCHECK(...) CUDA_ERRCHECK_HELPER(__VA_ARGS__, true)
 
#define CUDA_ERRCHECK_HELPER(ans, ...) do { ::CaloRecGPU::CUDA_gpu_assert((ans), __FILE__, __LINE__, CUDA_ERRCHECK_GET_FIRST(__VA_ARGS__, true) ); } while(0)
#define CUDA_ERRCHECK_GET_FIRST(x, ...) x
 
 
#if defined(__CUDA_ARCH__) &&  __CUDA_ARCH__ > 350
  #if CUDART_VERSION >= 12000
    #define CUDA_CAN_USE_TAIL_LAUNCH 1
  #else
    #define CUDA_CAN_USE_TAIL_LAUNCH 0
  #endif
#elif defined(__CUDA_ARCH__)
  #error "CUDA compute capability at least 3.5 is needed so we can have dynamic parallelism!"
#endif
 
 
#else
 
#define CUDA_HOS_DEV
#define CUDA_ERRCHECK(...)
 
#endif
 
  namespace CUDA_Helpers
  {
 
    struct CUDAStreamPtrHolder
    {
      void * ptr = nullptr;
 
      template <class T = const void>
      constexpr operator T * () const
      {
        return (T *) ptr;
      }
 
      constexpr operator bool() const
      {
        return ptr != nullptr;
      }
 
      template <class T>
      CUDAStreamPtrHolder (T * p) : ptr(p)
      {
      }
 
      CUDAStreamPtrHolder() = default;
    };
    //Can't do much more than this
    //since cudaStream_t is a typedef...
    //Though not typesafe, it is still
    //semantically more safe than a naked void *...
 
    void * allocate(const size_t num);
 
    void deallocate(void * address);
 
    void * allocate_pinned(const size_t num);
 
    void deallocate_pinned(void * address);
 
 
    void GPU_to_CPU(void * dest, const void * const source, const size_t num);
 
    void CPU_to_GPU(void * dest, const void * const source, const size_t num);
 
    void GPU_to_GPU(void * dest, const void * const source, const size_t num);
 
 
    void GPU_to_CPU_async(void * dest, const void * const source, const size_t num, CUDAStreamPtrHolder stream = {});
 
    void CPU_to_GPU_async(void * dest, const void * const source, const size_t num, CUDAStreamPtrHolder stream = {});
 
    void GPU_to_GPU_async(void * dest, const void * const source, const size_t num, CUDAStreamPtrHolder stream = {});
 
    void GPU_synchronize(CUDAStreamPtrHolder stream = {});
 
    void optimize_block_and_grid_size(void * func, int & block_size, int & grid_size, const int dynamic_memory = 0, const int block_size_limit = 0);
 
    void optimize_block_and_grid_size_for_cooperative_launch(void * func, int & block_size, int & grid_size, const int dynamic_memory = 0, const int block_size_limit = 0);
 
    bool supports_cooperative_launches();
 
    bool supports_dynamic_parallelism();
 
    std::string GPU_name();
  }
 
  namespace Helpers
  {
 
    inline constexpr int int_ceil_div(const int num, const int denom)
    {
      return num / denom + (num % denom != 0);
    }
 
    inline constexpr int int_floor_div(const int num, const int denom)
    {
      return num / denom;
    }
 
    template <class Base = float, class Exp = int>
    inline constexpr Base compile_time_pow2(const Exp exp)
    {
      Base ret = 1;
      if (exp < 0)
        {
          for (Exp i = 0; i < -exp; ++i)
            {
              ret /= Base(2);
            }
        }
      else
        {
          for (Exp i = 0; i < exp; ++i)
            {
              ret *= Base(2);
            }
        }
      return ret;
    }
    //Though we could possibly bit-hack stuff due to IEEE-754 reliance elsewhere,
    //it's not valid and type-safe C++...
    //Since it's compile-time, this being a trifle slower is meaningless.
 
 
    template <class T>
    inline constexpr unsigned char Pearson_hash(const T number)
    {
      constexpr unsigned char initial_value = 42;
      //The answer.
 
      constexpr unsigned char c_mult = 7;
      constexpr unsigned char c_add = 1;
      //For our "look up table": table[i] = c_mult * i + c_add
      //For an appropriate choice of constants (such as this),
      //this will be bijective (modulo 255), as required.
 
      unsigned char ret = initial_value;
 
      for (unsigned int i = 0; i < sizeof(T); i += sizeof(unsigned char))
        {
          const unsigned char to_hash = number >> (i * CHAR_BIT);
          const unsigned char operand = ret ^ to_hash;
          ret = c_mult * operand + c_add;
        }
 
      return ret;
    }
 
 
    template <class T>
    inline constexpr unsigned short Pearson_hash_16_bit(const T number)
    {
      constexpr unsigned short initial_value = 42754;
      //The answer and the standard.
 
      constexpr unsigned short c_mult = 7;
      constexpr unsigned short c_add = 1;
      //For our "look up table": table[i] = c_mult * i + c_add
      //For an appropriate choice of constants (such as this),
      //this will be bijective (modulo 255), as required.
 
      unsigned short ret = initial_value;
 
      for (unsigned int i = 0; i < sizeof(T); i += sizeof(unsigned short))
        {
          const unsigned short to_hash = number >> (i * CHAR_BIT);
          const unsigned short operand = ret ^ to_hash;
          ret = c_mult * operand + c_add;
        }
 
      return ret;
    }
 
 
    namespace Constants
    {
#ifdef __cpp_lib_math_constants
  template <class T>
  inline constexpr T pi = std::numbers::pi_v<T>;
 
  template <class T>
  inline constexpr T sqrt2 = std::numbers::sqrt2_v<T>;
#else
  template <class T>
  inline constexpr T pi = T(3.1415926535897932384626433832795028841971693993751058209749445923078164062862089986280348253421170679821480865132823066470938446095505822317253594081284811174502841027019385211055596446229489549303819644288109756659334461284756482337867831652712019091456485669234603486104543266482133936072602491412737245870066063155881748815209209628292540917153643678925903600113305305488204665213841469519415116094330572703657595919530921861173819326117931051185480744623799627495673518857527248912279381830119491298336733624L);
 
  template <class T>
  inline constexpr T sqrt2 = T(1.4142135623730950488016887242096980785696718753769480731766797379907324784621070388503875343276415727350138462309122970249248360558507372126441214970999358314132226659275055927557999505011527820605714701095599716059702745345968620147285174186408891986095523292304843087143214508397626036279952514079896872533965463318088296406206152583523950547457502877599617298355752203375318570113543746034084988471603868999706990048150305440277903164542478230684929369186215805784631115966687130130156185689872372352885092649L);
#endif
 
      template <class T>
      inline constexpr T inv_sqrt2 = T(0.70710678118654752440084436210484903928483593768847403658833986899536623923105351942519376716382078636750692311545614851246241802792536860632206074854996791570661133296375279637789997525057639103028573505477998580298513726729843100736425870932044459930477616461524215435716072541988130181399762570399484362669827316590441482031030762917619752737287514387998086491778761016876592850567718730170424942358019344998534950240751527201389515822712391153424646845931079028923155579833435650650780928449361861764425463243L);
      //Why is this not in the C++ constants?!
 
    }
 
    CUDA_HOS_DEV static inline
    float erf_inv_wrapper (const float x)
    {
      using namespace std;
#ifdef __CUDA_ARCH__
      return erfinvf(x);
#else
      //Copied directly from ROOT...
 
      int kMaxit    = 50;
      float kEps   = 1e-14;
      float kConst = 0.8862269254527579;     // sqrt(pi)/2.0
 
      if (abs(x) <= kEps)
        {
          return kConst * x;
        }
 
      // Newton iterations
      float erfi, derfi, y0, y1, dy0, dy1;
      if (fabsf(x) < 1.0f)
        {
          erfi  = kConst * fabsf(x);
          y0    = erff(0.9f * erfi);
          derfi = 0.1 * erfi;
          for (int iter = 0; iter < kMaxit; iter++)
            {
              y1  = 1. - erfc(erfi);
              dy1 = fabsf(x) - y1;
              if (fabsf(dy1) < kEps)
                {
                  if (x < 0)
                    {
                      return -erfi;
                    }
                  else
                    {
                      return erfi;
                    }
                }
              dy0    = y1 - y0;
              derfi *= dy1 / dy0;
              y0     = y1;
              erfi  += derfi;
              if (fabsf(derfi / erfi) < kEps)
                {
                  if (x < 0)
                    {
                      return -erfi;
                    }
                  else
                    {
                      return erfi;
                    }
                }
            }
        }
      return 0; //did not converge
#endif
    }
 
    CUDA_HOS_DEV static inline
    float regularize_angle(const float b, const float a = 0.f)
    //a. k. a. proxim in Athena code.
    {
      using namespace std;
      const float diff = b - a;
      const float divi = (fabsf(diff) - Helpers::Constants::pi<float>) / (2 * Helpers::Constants::pi<float>);
      return b - ceilf(divi) * ((b > a + Helpers::Constants::pi<float>) - (b < a - Helpers::Constants::pi<float>)) * 2 * Helpers::Constants::pi<float>;
    }
 
    CUDA_HOS_DEV static inline
    double regularize_angle(const double b, const double a = 0.)
    //a. k. a. proxim in Athena code.
    {
      using namespace std;
      const float diff = b - a;
      const float divi = (fabs(diff) - Helpers::Constants::pi<double>) / (2 * Helpers::Constants::pi<double>);
      return b - ceil(divi) * ((b > a + Helpers::Constants::pi<double>) - (b < a - Helpers::Constants::pi<double>)) * 2 * Helpers::Constants::pi<double>;
    }
 
    template <class T>
    CUDA_HOS_DEV static inline
    T angular_difference(const T x, const T y)
    {
      return regularize_angle(x - y, T(0));
      //Might be problematic if x and y have a significant difference
      //in terms of factors of pi, in which case one should add
      //a regularize_angle(x) and regularize_angle(y) in there.
      //For our use case, I think this will be fine.
      //(The Athena ones are even worse,
      // being a branchy thing that only
      // takes care of one factor of 2 pi...)
    }
 
    CUDA_HOS_DEV static inline
    float eta_from_coordinates(const float x, const float y, const float z)
    {
      using namespace std;
      const float rho2 = x * x + y * y;
      if (rho2 > 0.)
        {
          const float m = sqrtf(rho2 + z * z);
          return 0.5 * logf((m + z) / (m - z));
        }
      else
        {
          constexpr float s_etaMax = 22756.0;
          return z + ((z > 0) - (z < 0)) * s_etaMax;
        }
    }
 
    CUDA_HOS_DEV static inline
    double eta_from_coordinates(const double x, const double y, const double z)
    {
      using namespace std;
      const double rho2 = x * x + y * y;
      if (rho2 > 0.)
        {
          const double m = sqrt(rho2 + z * z);
          return 0.5 * log((m + z) / (m - z));
        }
      else
        {
          constexpr double s_etaMax = 22756.0;
          return z + ((z > 0) - (z < 0)) * s_etaMax;
        }
    }
 
    namespace MemoryContext
    {
      struct CPU
      {
        constexpr static char const * name = "CPU";
      };
      struct CUDAGPU
      {
        constexpr static char const * name = "CUDA GPU";
      };
      struct CUDAPinnedCPU
      {
        constexpr static char const * name = "CUDA Pinned CPU";
      };
    }
 
    template <class T, class indexer>
    class MemoryManagement
    {
     private:
      template <class C, class dummy = void> struct unary_helper;
 
      template <class dummy> struct unary_helper<MemoryContext::CPU, dummy>
      {
        static inline T * allocate(const indexer size)
        {
          return new T[size];
        }
 
        static inline void deallocate(T *& arr)
        {
          delete[] arr;
        }
 
      };
 
      template <class dummy> struct unary_helper<MemoryContext::CUDAGPU, dummy>
      {
        static inline T * allocate(const indexer size)
        {
          return static_cast<T *>(CUDA_Helpers::allocate(sizeof(T) * size));
        }
 
        static inline void deallocate(T *& arr)
        {
          CUDA_Helpers::deallocate(arr);
        }
      };
 
 
      template <class dummy> struct unary_helper<MemoryContext::CUDAPinnedCPU, dummy>
      {
        static inline T * allocate(const indexer size)
        {
          return static_cast<T *>(CUDA_Helpers::allocate_pinned(sizeof(T) * size));
        }
 
        static inline void deallocate(T *& arr)
        {
          CUDA_Helpers::deallocate_pinned(arr);
        }
      };
 
      template <class C1, class C2, class dummy = void> struct copy_helper;
 
      template <class dummy> struct copy_helper<MemoryContext::CPU, MemoryContext::CPU, dummy>
      {
        static inline void copy (T * dest, const T * const source, const indexer sz)
        {
          std::memcpy(dest, source, sizeof(T) * sz);
        }
      };
 
      template <class dummy> struct copy_helper<MemoryContext::CPU, MemoryContext::CUDAGPU, dummy>
      {
        static inline void copy (T * dest, const T * const source, const indexer sz)
        {
          CUDA_Helpers::GPU_to_CPU(dest, source, sizeof(T) * sz);
        }
      };
 
      template <class dummy> struct copy_helper<MemoryContext::CUDAGPU, MemoryContext::CUDAGPU, dummy>
      {
        static inline void copy (T * dest, const T * const source, const indexer sz)
        {
          CUDA_Helpers::GPU_to_GPU(dest, source, sizeof(T) * sz);
        }
      };
 
      template <class dummy> struct copy_helper<MemoryContext::CUDAGPU, MemoryContext::CPU, dummy>
      {
        static inline void copy (T * dest, const T * const source, const indexer sz)
        {
          CUDA_Helpers::CPU_to_GPU(dest, source, sizeof(T) * sz);
        }
      };
 
      template <class dummy> struct copy_helper<MemoryContext::CUDAPinnedCPU, MemoryContext::CPU, dummy>
      {
        static inline void copy (T * dest, const T * const source, const indexer sz)
        {
          std::memcpy(dest, source, sizeof(T) * sz);
        }
      };
 
      template <class dummy> struct copy_helper<MemoryContext::CPU, MemoryContext::CUDAPinnedCPU, dummy>
      {
        static inline void copy (T * dest, const T * const source, const indexer sz)
        {
          std::memcpy(dest, source, sizeof(T) * sz);
        }
      };
 
      template <class dummy> struct copy_helper<MemoryContext::CUDAPinnedCPU, MemoryContext::CUDAPinnedCPU, dummy>
      {
        static inline void copy (T * dest, const T * const source, const indexer sz)
        {
          std::memcpy(dest, source, sizeof(T) * sz);
        }
      };
 
      template <class dummy> struct copy_helper<MemoryContext::CUDAPinnedCPU, MemoryContext::CUDAGPU, dummy>
      {
        static inline void copy (T * dest, const T * const source, const indexer sz)
        {
          CUDA_Helpers::GPU_to_CPU(dest, source, sizeof(T) * sz);
        }
      };
 
      template <class dummy> struct copy_helper<MemoryContext::CUDAGPU, MemoryContext::CUDAPinnedCPU, dummy>
      {
        static inline void copy (T * dest, const T * const source, const indexer sz)
        {
          CUDA_Helpers::CPU_to_GPU(dest, source, sizeof(T) * sz);
        }
      };
 
 
      template <class C1, class C2, class dummy = void> struct move_helper;
 
      template <class C1, class C2, class dummy> struct move_helper
      {
        inline static void move(T *& dest,  T *& source, const indexer sz)
        {
          dest = MemoryManagement<T, indexer>::template allocate<C1>(sz);
          MemoryManagement<T, indexer>::template copy<C1, C2>(dest, source, sz);
          MemoryManagement<T, indexer>::template deallocate<C2>(source);
        }
      };
 
      template <class C, class dummy> struct move_helper<C, C, dummy>
      {
        inline static void move(T *& dest,  T *& source, const indexer)
        {
          dest = source;
          source = nullptr;
        }
      };
 
     public:
      template <class Context> static inline T * allocate(const indexer size)
      {
        T * ret = nullptr;
        if (size > 0)
          {
            ret = unary_helper<Context>::allocate(size);
          }
#if CALORECGPU_HELPERS_DEBUG
        std::cerr << "ALLOCATED " << size << " x " << sizeof(T) << " in " << Context::name << ": " << ret << std::endl;
#endif
        return ret;
      }
 
      template <class Context> static inline void deallocate(T *& arr)
      {
        if (arr == nullptr)
          //This check is to ensure the code behaves on non-CUDA enabled platforms
          //where some destructors might still be called with nullptr.
          {
            return;
          }
        unary_helper<Context>::deallocate(arr);
#if CALORECGPU_HELPERS_DEBUG
        std::cerr << "DEALLOCATED in " << Context::name << ": " << arr << std::endl;
#endif
        arr = nullptr;
      }
 
 
      template <class DestContext, class SourceContext>
      static inline void copy(T * dest, const T * const source, const indexer sz)
      {
        if (sz > 0 && source != nullptr)
          {
            copy_helper<DestContext, SourceContext>::copy(dest, source, sz);
          }
#if CALORECGPU_HELPERS_DEBUG
        std::cerr << "COPIED " << sz << " from " << SourceContext::name << " to " << DestContext::name << ": " << source << " to " << dest << std::endl;
#endif
      }
 
 
      template <class DestContext, class SourceContext>
      static inline void move(T *& dest,  T *& source, const indexer sz)
      {
#if CALORECGPU_HELPERS_DEBUG
        std::cerr << "MOVED " << sz << " from " << SourceContext::name << " to " << DestContext::name << ": " << source << " to " << dest;
#endif
        if (sz > 0 && source != nullptr)
          {
            move_helper<DestContext, SourceContext, std::is_same<DestContext, SourceContext>>::move(dest, source, sz);
          }
        else
          {
            dest = nullptr;
            deallocate<SourceContext>(source);
          }
#if CALORECGPU_HELPERS_DEBUG
        std::cerr << " | " << source << " to " << dest << std::endl;
#endif
      }
 
    };
 
    template <class T, class indexer, class Context, bool hold_arrays = true>
    class SimpleContainer;
 
    template <class T, class indexer, class Context>
    class SimpleContainer<T, indexer, Context, true>
    {
      static_assert(std::is_trivially_copyable<T>::value, "SimpleContainer only works with a trivially copyable type.");
      T * m_array;
      indexer m_size;
 
      template <class a, class b, class c, bool d> friend class SimpleContainer;
 
      using Manager = MemoryManagement<T, indexer>;
 
     public:
 
      CUDA_HOS_DEV inline indexer size() const
      {
        return m_size;
      }
 
      CUDA_HOS_DEV inline T & operator[] (const indexer i)
      {
        return m_array[i];
      }
 
      CUDA_HOS_DEV inline const T & operator[] (const indexer i) const
      {
        return m_array[i];
      }
 
      inline void clear()
      {
        Manager::deallocate(m_array);
        m_size = 0;
      }
 
      inline void resize(const indexer new_size)
      {
        if (new_size == 0)
          {
            clear();
          }
        else if (new_size != m_size)
          {
            T * temp = m_array;
            m_array = Manager::template allocate<Context>(new_size);
            Manager::template copy<Context, Context>(m_array, temp, (m_size < new_size ? m_size : new_size));
            Manager::template deallocate<Context>(temp);
            m_size = new_size;
          }
      }
 
      SimpleContainer() : m_array(nullptr), m_size(0)
      {
      }
 
      SimpleContainer(const indexer sz) : m_size(sz)
      {
        m_array = Manager::template allocate<Context>(sz);
      }
 
      SimpleContainer(T * other_array, const indexer sz) : m_size(sz)
      {
        m_array = Manager::template allocate<Context>(sz);
        Manager::template copy<Context, Context>(m_array, other_array, sz);
      }
 
      SimpleContainer(const SimpleContainer & other) : m_size(other.m_size)
      {
        m_array = Manager::template allocate<Context>(m_size);
        Manager::template copy<Context, Context>(m_array, other.m_array, m_size);
      }
 
      SimpleContainer(SimpleContainer && other) : m_size(other.m_size)
      {
        m_array = nullptr;
        Manager::template move<Context, Context>(m_array, other.m_array, m_size);
        other.m_size = 0;
      }
 
      template <class other_indexer, class other_context, bool other_hold>
      SimpleContainer(const SimpleContainer<T, other_indexer, other_context, other_hold> & other) :
        m_size(other.m_size)
      {
 
        m_array = Manager::template allocate<Context>(m_size);
        Manager::template copy<Context, other_context>(m_array, other.m_array, m_size);
      }
 
      template <class other_indexer, class other_context>
      SimpleContainer(SimpleContainer<T, other_indexer, other_context, true> && other) :
        m_size(other.m_size)
      {
        m_array = nullptr;
        Manager::template move<Context, other_context>(m_array, other.m_array, m_size);
        other.m_size = 0;
      }
 
      SimpleContainer & operator= (const SimpleContainer & other)
      {
        if (this == &other)
          {
            return (*this);
          }
        else
          {
            resize(other.size());
            Manager::template copy<Context, Context>(m_array, other.m_array, m_size);
            return (*this);
          }
      }
 
      SimpleContainer & operator= (SimpleContainer && other)
      {
        if (this == &other)
          {
            return (*this);
          }
        else
          {
            clear();
            Manager::template move<Context, Context>(m_array, other.m_array, other.size());
            m_size = other.m_size;
            other.m_size = 0;
            return (*this);
          }
      }
 
 
      template <class other_indexer, class other_context, bool other_hold>
      SimpleContainer & operator= (const SimpleContainer<T, other_indexer, other_context, other_hold> & other)
      {
        resize(other.m_size);
        Manager::template copy<Context, other_context>(m_array, other.m_array, m_size);
        return (*this);
      }
 
      template <class other_indexer, class other_context>
      SimpleContainer & operator= (SimpleContainer<T, other_indexer, other_context, true> && other)
      {
        clear();
        Manager::template move<Context, other_context>(m_array, other.m_array, other.m_size);
        m_size = other.m_size;
        other.m_size = 0;
        return (*this);
      }
 
      ~SimpleContainer()
      {
        Manager::template deallocate<Context>(m_array);
        m_size = 0;
      }
 
      CUDA_HOS_DEV operator const T * () const
      {
        return m_array;
      }
 
      CUDA_HOS_DEV operator T * ()
      {
        return m_array;
      }
 
      template <class stream, class str = std::basic_string<typename stream::char_type> >
      void textual_output(stream & s, const str & separator = " ") const
      {
        if (std::is_same<Context, MemoryContext::CPU>::value)
          {
            s << m_size << separator;
            for (indexer i = 0; i < m_size - 1; ++i)
              {
                s << m_array[i] << separator;
              }
            s << m_array[m_size - 1];
          }
        else
          {
            SimpleContainer<T, indexer, MemoryContext::CPU, true> other(*this);
            other.textual_output(s, separator);
          }
      }
 
      template <class stream>
      void textual_input(stream & s)
      {
        if (std::is_same<Context, MemoryContext::CPU>::value)
          {
            indexer new_size;
            s >> new_size >> std::ws;
            if (s.fail())
              {
                //Throw errors, perhaps? Don't know if we can/should use exceptions...
                std::cerr << "FAILED READING " << this << "!" << std::endl;
                new_size = 0;
              }
            resize(new_size);
            for (indexer i = 0; i < m_size - 1; ++i)
              {
                s >> m_array[i];
                s >> std::ws;
              }
            s >> m_array[m_size - 1];
          }
        else
          {
            SimpleContainer<T, indexer, MemoryContext::CPU, true> other;
            other.textual_input(s);
            (*this) = other;
          }
      }
 
      template <class stream>
      void binary_output(stream & s) const
      {
        if (std::is_same<Context, MemoryContext::CPU>::value)
          {
            s.write((char *) &m_size, sizeof(indexer));
            for (indexer i = 0; i < m_size; ++i)
              {
                s.write((char *) (m_array + i), sizeof(T));
              }
          }
        else
          {
            SimpleContainer<T, indexer, MemoryContext::CPU, true> other(*this);
            other.binary_output(s);
          }
      }
 
      template <class stream>
      void binary_input(stream & s)
      {
        if (std::is_same<Context, MemoryContext::CPU>::value)
          {
            indexer new_size;
            s.read((char *) &new_size, sizeof(indexer));
            if (s.fail())
              {
                //Throw errors, perhaps? Don't know if we can/should use exceptions...
                std::cerr << "FAILED READING " << this << "!" << std::endl;
                new_size = 0;
              }
            resize(new_size);
            for (indexer i = 0; i < m_size; ++i)
              {
                s.read((char *) (m_array + i), sizeof(T));
              }
          }
        else
          {
            SimpleContainer<T, indexer, MemoryContext::CPU, true> other;
            other.binary_input(s);
            (*this) = other;
          }
      }
 
    };
 
    template <class T, class indexer, class Context>
    class SimpleContainer<T, indexer, Context, false>
    {
      static_assert(std::is_trivially_copyable<T>::value, "SimpleContainer only works with a trivially copyable type.");
      T * m_array;
      indexer m_size;
 
      using Manager = MemoryManagement<T, indexer>;
 
      template <class a, class b, class c, bool d> friend class SimpleContainer;
 
     public:
 
      CUDA_HOS_DEV inline indexer size() const
      {
        return m_size;
      }
 
      CUDA_HOS_DEV inline T & operator[] (const indexer i)
      {
        return m_array[i];
      }
 
      CUDA_HOS_DEV inline const T & operator[] (const indexer i) const
      {
        return m_array[i];
      }
 
      // cppcheck-suppress  uninitMemberVar
      //Try to suppress the uninitialized member thing that is probably being thrown off by the CUDA_HOS_DEV macro...
      CUDA_HOS_DEV SimpleContainer() : m_array(nullptr), m_size(0)
      {
      }
 
      // cppcheck-suppress  uninitMemberVar
      //Try to suppress the uninitialized member thing that is probably being thrown off by the CUDA_HOS_DEV macro...
      CUDA_HOS_DEV SimpleContainer(T * other_array, const indexer sz) : m_array(other_array), m_size(sz)
      {
      }
 
      template <class other_indexer, bool other_hold>
      // cppcheck-suppress  uninitMemberVar
      //Try to suppress the uninitialized member thing that is probably being thrown off by the CUDA_HOS_DEV macro...
      CUDA_HOS_DEV SimpleContainer(const SimpleContainer<T, other_indexer, Context, other_hold> & other) :
        m_size(other.m_size),
        m_array(other.m_array)
      {
      }
 
      // cppcheck-suppress  operatorEqVarError
      //Try to suppress the uninitialized member thing that is probably being thrown off by the CUDA_HOS_DEV macro...
      CUDA_HOS_DEV SimpleContainer & operator= (const SimpleContainer & other)
      {
        if (this == &other)
          {
            return (*this);
          }
        else
          {
            m_array = other.m_array;
            m_size = other.m_size;
            return (*this);
          }
      }
 
      template <class other_indexer, bool other_hold>
      // cppcheck-suppress  operatorEqVarError
      //Try to suppress the uninitialized member thing that is probably being thrown off by the CUDA_HOS_DEV macro...
      CUDA_HOS_DEV SimpleContainer & operator= (const SimpleContainer<T, other_indexer, Context, other_hold> & other)
      {
        m_size = other.m_size;
        m_array = other.m_array;
        return (*this);
      }
 
      CUDA_HOS_DEV operator const T * () const
      {
        return m_array;
      }
 
      CUDA_HOS_DEV operator T * ()
      {
        return m_array;
      }
    };
 
    template <class T, class indexer = unsigned int>
    using CPU_array = SimpleContainer<T, indexer, MemoryContext::CPU, true>;
 
    template <class T, class indexer = unsigned int>
    using CUDA_array = SimpleContainer<T, indexer, MemoryContext::CUDAGPU, true>;
 
    template <class T, class indexer = unsigned int>
    using CUDA_kernel_array = SimpleContainer<T, indexer, MemoryContext::CUDAGPU, false>;
 
    template <class T, class Context, bool hold_object = true>
    class SimpleHolder;
 
    template <class T, class Context>
    class SimpleHolder<T, Context, true>
    {
      static_assert(std::is_trivially_copyable<T>::value, "SimpleHolder only works with a trivially copyable type.");
 
      using indexer = unsigned int;
 
      T * m_object;
 
      using Manager = MemoryManagement<T, indexer>;
 
      template <class a, class b, bool c> friend class SimpleHolder;
 
     public:
 
      CUDA_HOS_DEV const T & operator *() const
      {
        return *m_object;
      }
 
      CUDA_HOS_DEV T & operator *()
      {
        return *m_object;
      }
 
      CUDA_HOS_DEV const T * operator ->() const
      {
        return m_object;
      }
 
      CUDA_HOS_DEV T * operator ->()
      {
        return m_object;
      }
 
      CUDA_HOS_DEV inline bool valid() const
      {
        return m_object != nullptr;
      }
 
      inline void clear()
      {
        Manager::template deallocate<Context>(m_object);
      }
 
      inline void allocate()
      {
        if (m_object == nullptr)
          {
            m_object = Manager::template allocate<Context>(1);
          }
      }
 
      SimpleHolder(): m_object(nullptr)
      {
      }
 
      SimpleHolder(const bool really_allocate)
      {
        if (really_allocate)
          {
            m_object = Manager::template allocate<Context>(1);
          }
        else
          {
            m_object = nullptr;
          }
      }
 
      template < class X, class disabler = typename std::enable_if < std::is_base_of<T, X>::value || std::is_same<T, X>::value >::type >
      explicit SimpleHolder(X * other_p)
      {
        m_object = Manager::template allocate<Context>(1);
        Manager::template copy<Context, Context>(m_object, other_p, 1);
      }
 
      template < class X, class disabler = typename std::enable_if < std::is_base_of<T, X>::value || std::is_same<T, X>::value >::type >
      SimpleHolder(const X & other_v) : SimpleHolder(&other_v)
      {
 
 
      }
 
      SimpleHolder(const SimpleHolder & other)
      {
        if (other.valid())
          {
            m_object = Manager::template allocate<Context>(1);
            Manager::template copy<Context, Context>(m_object, other.m_object, other.valid());
          }
        else
          {
            m_object = nullptr;
          }
      }
 
      template < class X, class other_context, bool other_hold,
                 class disabler = typename std::enable_if < std::is_base_of<T, X>::value || std::is_same<T, X>::value >::type >
      SimpleHolder(const SimpleHolder<X, other_context, other_hold> & other)
      {
        if (other.valid())
          {
            m_object = Manager::template allocate<Context>(1);
            Manager::template copy<Context, other_context>(m_object, other.m_object, other.valid());
          }
        else
          {
            m_object = nullptr;
          }
      }
 
      SimpleHolder(SimpleHolder && other)
      {
        m_object = nullptr;
        Manager::template move<Context, Context>(m_object, other.m_object, other.valid());
      }
 
      template < class X, class other_context,
                 class disabler = typename std::enable_if < std::is_base_of<T, X>::value || std::is_same<T, X>::value >::type >
      SimpleHolder(SimpleHolder<X, other_context, true> && other)
      {
        m_object = nullptr;
        Manager::template move<Context, other_context>(m_object, other.m_object, other.valid());
      }
 
      // cppcheck-suppress  operatorEqVarError
      //Try to suppress the uninitialized member thing that is probably being thrown off by the CUDA_HOS_DEV macro...
      SimpleHolder & operator= (const SimpleHolder & other)
      {
        if (!valid() && other.valid())
          {
            allocate();
          }
        if (&other != this)
          {
            Manager::template copy<Context, Context>(m_object, other.m_object, other.valid());
          }
        return (*this);
      }
 
      template < class X, class other_context, bool other_hold,
                 class disabler = typename std::enable_if < std::is_base_of<T, X>::value || std::is_same<T, X>::value >::type >
      // cppcheck-suppress  operatorEqVarError
      //Try to suppress the uninitialized member thing that is probably being thrown off by the CUDA_HOS_DEV macro...
      SimpleHolder & operator= (const SimpleHolder<X, other_context, other_hold> & other)
      {
        if (!valid() && other.valid())
          {
            allocate();
          }
        Manager::template copy<Context, other_context>(m_object, other.m_object, other.valid());
        return (*this);
      }
 
      // cppcheck-suppress  operatorEqVarError
      //Try to suppress the uninitialized member thing that is probably being thrown off by the CUDA_HOS_DEV macro...
      SimpleHolder & operator= (SimpleHolder && other)
      {
        if (&other != this)
          {
            clear();
            Manager::template move<Context, Context>(m_object, other.m_object, other.valid());
          }
        return (*this);
      }
 
      template < class X, class other_context,
                 class disabler = typename std::enable_if < std::is_base_of<T, X>::value || std::is_same<T, X>::value >::type >
      // cppcheck-suppress  operatorEqVarError
      //Try to suppress the uninitialized member thing that is probably being thrown off by the CUDA_HOS_DEV macro...
      SimpleHolder & operator= (SimpleHolder<X, other_context, true> && other)
      {
        clear();
        Manager::template move<Context, other_context>(m_object, other.m_object, other.valid());
        return (*this);
      }
 
      ~SimpleHolder()
      {
        Manager::template deallocate<Context>(m_object);
      }
 
      template < class X, class disabler = typename std::enable_if < std::is_base_of<X, T>::value || std::is_same<T, X>::value >::type >
      CUDA_HOS_DEV operator const X * () const
      {
        return m_object;
      }
 
      template < class X, class disabler = typename std::enable_if < std::is_base_of<X, T>::value || std::is_same<T, X>::value >::type >
      CUDA_HOS_DEV operator X * ()
      {
        return m_object;
      }
 
      template <class stream, class str = std::basic_string<typename stream::char_type> >
      void textual_output(stream & s, const str & separator = " ") const
      {
        if (std::is_same<Context, MemoryContext::CPU>::value)
          {
            if (m_object == nullptr)
              {
                s << 0;
              }
            else
              {
                s << 1 << separator << (*m_object);
              }
          }
        else
          {
            SimpleHolder<T, MemoryContext::CPU, true> other(*this);
            other.textual_output(s, separator);
          }
      }
 
      template <class stream>
      void textual_input(stream & s)
      {
        if (std::is_same<Context, MemoryContext::CPU>::value)
          {
            bool is_valid;
            s >> is_valid >> std::ws;
            if (s.fail())
              {
                //Throw errors, perhaps? Don't know if we can/should use exceptions...
                std::cerr << "FAILED READING " << this << "!" << std::endl;
                is_valid = false;
              }
            if (is_valid)
              {
                allocate();
                s >> (*m_object);
              }
            else
              {
                clear();
              }
          }
        else
          {
            SimpleHolder<T, MemoryContext::CPU, true> other;
            other.textual_input(s);
            (*this) = other;
          }
      }
 
      template <class stream>
      void binary_output(stream & s) const
      {
        if (m_object == nullptr)
          {
            return;
          }
        if (std::is_same<Context, MemoryContext::CPU>::value)
          {
            s.write((char *) m_object, sizeof(T));
          }
        else
          {
            SimpleHolder<T, MemoryContext::CPU, true> other(*this);
            other.binary_output(s);
          }
      }
 
      template <class stream>
      void binary_input(stream & s)
      {
        if (std::is_same<Context, MemoryContext::CPU>::value)
          {
            allocate();
            s.read((char *) m_object, sizeof(T));
          }
        else
          {
            SimpleHolder<T, MemoryContext::CPU, true> other;
            other.binary_input(s);
            (*this) = other;
          }
      }
 
    };
 
    template <class T, class Context>
    class SimpleHolder<T, Context, false>
    {
      static_assert(std::is_trivially_copyable<T>::value, "SimpleHolder only works with a trivially copyable type.");
 
      using indexer = unsigned int;
 
      T * m_object;
 
      using Manager = MemoryManagement<T, indexer>;
 
      template <class a, class b, bool c> friend class SimpleHolder;
 
     public:
 
      CUDA_HOS_DEV const T & operator *() const
      {
        return *m_object;
      }
 
      CUDA_HOS_DEV T & operator *()
      {
        return *m_object;
      }
 
      CUDA_HOS_DEV const T * operator ->() const
      {
        return m_object;
      }
 
      CUDA_HOS_DEV T * operator ->()
      {
        return m_object;
      }
 
      CUDA_HOS_DEV inline bool valid() const
      {
        return m_object != nullptr;
      }
 
      // cppcheck-suppress  uninitMemberVar
      //Try to suppress the uninitialized member thing that is probably being thrown off by the CUDA_HOS_DEV macro...
      CUDA_HOS_DEV SimpleHolder() : m_object(nullptr)
      {
      }
 
      template < class X, class disabler = typename std::enable_if < std::is_base_of<T, X>::value || std::is_same<T, X>::value >::type >
      // cppcheck-suppress  uninitMemberVar
      //Try to suppress the uninitialized member thing that is probably being thrown off by the CUDA_HOS_DEV macro...
      CUDA_HOS_DEV SimpleHolder(X * other_p)
      {
        m_object = other_p;
      }
 
      template < class X, bool other_hold,
                 class disabler = typename std::enable_if < std::is_base_of<T, X>::value || std::is_same<T, X>::value >::type >
      // cppcheck-suppress  uninitMemberVar
      //Try to suppress the uninitialized member thing that is probably being thrown off by the CUDA_HOS_DEV macro...
      CUDA_HOS_DEV SimpleHolder(const SimpleHolder<X, Context, other_hold> & other)
      {
        m_object = other.m_object;
      }
 
      template < class X, bool other_hold,
                 class disabler = typename std::enable_if < std::is_base_of<T, X>::value || std::is_same<T, X>::value >::type >
      // cppcheck-suppress  operatorEqVarError
      //Try to suppress the uninitialized member thing that is probably being thrown off by the CUDA_HOS_DEV macro...
      CUDA_HOS_DEV SimpleHolder & operator= (const SimpleHolder<X, Context, other_hold> & other)
      {
        m_object = other.m_object;
        return (*this);
      }
 
      template < class X, class disabler = typename std::enable_if < std::is_base_of<X, T>::value || std::is_same<T, X>::value >::type >
      CUDA_HOS_DEV operator const X * () const
      {
        return m_object;
      }
 
      template < class X, class disabler = typename std::enable_if < std::is_base_of<X, T>::value || std::is_same<T, X>::value >::type >
      CUDA_HOS_DEV operator X * ()
      {
        return m_object;
      }
    };
 
    template <class T>
    using CPU_object = SimpleHolder<T, MemoryContext::CPU, true>;
 
    template <class T>
    using CUDA_object = SimpleHolder<T, MemoryContext::CUDAGPU, true>;
 
    template <class T>
    using CUDA_kernel_object = SimpleHolder<T, MemoryContext::CUDAGPU, false>;
 
    template <class T>
    using CUDA_pinned_CPU_object = SimpleHolder<T, MemoryContext::CUDAPinnedCPU, true>;
 
    template <class T>
    class separate_thread_holder
    {
     private:
      std::vector< std::unique_ptr<T> > m_held;
      std::vector< typename std::thread::id > m_thread_equivs;
      //For a sufficiently small number of threads
      //(not much more than 100 or so?)
      //it's faster to have linear search+insert
      //than any other addressing mode
      //(e. g. unordered_map)
      //We could still consider a more sophisticated solution...
 
      //Simple alternative: some sort of stack for non-assigned objects,
      //pushing and popping instead of linear searching.
      //(But with constant memory -> no (de)allocations.)
 
      mutable std::shared_mutex m_mutex;
 
      T & add_one_and_return()
      {
        std::unique_lock<std::shared_mutex> lock(m_mutex);
        m_held.emplace_back(std::make_unique<T>());
        m_thread_equivs.emplace_back(std::this_thread::get_id());
        return *(m_held.back());
      }
 
     public:
      T & get_one()
      {
        {
          std::shared_lock<std::shared_mutex> lock(m_mutex);
          std::thread::id this_id = std::this_thread::get_id();
          const std::thread::id invalid_id{};
          for (size_t i = 0; i < m_thread_equivs.size(); ++i)
            {
              if (m_thread_equivs[i] == invalid_id)
                {
                  m_thread_equivs[i] = this_id;
                  return *(m_held[i]);
                }
            }
        }
        return add_one_and_return();
      }
 
      T & get_for_thread() const
      {
        std::shared_lock<std::shared_mutex> lock(m_mutex);
        std::thread::id this_id = std::this_thread::get_id();
        for (size_t i = 0; i < m_thread_equivs.size(); ++i)
          {
            if (m_thread_equivs[i] == this_id)
              {
                return *(m_held[i]);
              }
          }
        //Here would be a good place for an unreachable.
        //C++23?
        return *(m_held.back());
      }
 
      void release_one()
      {
        std::unique_lock<std::shared_mutex> lock(m_mutex);
        std::thread::id this_id = std::this_thread::get_id();
        const std::thread::id invalid_id{};
        for (size_t i = 0; i < m_thread_equivs.size(); ++i)
          {
            if (m_thread_equivs[i] == this_id)
              {
                m_thread_equivs[i] = invalid_id;
              }
          }
      }
 
      void resize(const size_t new_size)
      {
        std::unique_lock<std::shared_mutex> lock(m_mutex);
        if (new_size < m_held.size())
          {
            m_held.resize(new_size);
            m_thread_equivs.resize(new_size);
          }
        else if (new_size > m_held.size())
          {
            const size_t to_add = new_size - m_held.size();
            const std::thread::id invalid_id{};
            for (size_t i = 0; i < to_add; ++i)
              {
                m_held.emplace_back(std::make_unique<T>());
                m_thread_equivs.emplace_back(invalid_id);
              }
          }
      }
 
      template <class F, class ... Args>
      void operate_on_all(F && f, Args && ... args)
      {
        std::unique_lock<std::shared_mutex> lock(m_mutex);
        for (std::unique_ptr<T> & obj : m_held)
          {
            f(*obj, std::forward<Args>(args)...);
          }
      }
 
      size_t held_size() const
      {
        std::shared_lock<std::shared_mutex> lock(m_mutex);
        return m_held.size();
      }
 
      size_t available_size() const
      {
        std::shared_lock<std::shared_mutex> lock(m_mutex);
        size_t count = 0;
        const std::thread::id invalid_id{};
        for (const auto & id : m_thread_equivs)
          {
            if (id == invalid_id)
              {
                ++count;
              }
          }
        return count;
      }
 
      size_t filled_size() const
      {
        std::shared_lock<std::shared_mutex> lock(m_mutex);
        size_t count = 0;
        const std::thread::id invalid_id{};
        for (const auto & id : m_thread_equivs)
          {
            if (id == invalid_id)
              {
                ++count;
              }
          }
        return m_held.size() - count;
      }
    };
 
    template <class T>
    struct separate_thread_accessor
    {
     private:
      separate_thread_holder<T> & m_sth;
      T * m_held;
     public:
      separate_thread_accessor(separate_thread_holder<T> & s):
        m_sth(s), m_held(nullptr)
      {
      }
      T & get_one()
      {
        if (m_held == nullptr)
          {
            m_held = &(m_sth.get_one());
          }
        return *m_held;
      }
      void release_one()
      {
        if (m_held != nullptr)
          {
            m_sth.release_one();
            m_held = nullptr;
          }
      }
      ~separate_thread_accessor()
      {
        if (m_held != nullptr)
          {
            m_sth.release_one();
          }
      }
      separate_thread_accessor(separate_thread_holder<T> & s, T *& ptr):
        separate_thread_accessor(s)
      {
        get_one();
        ptr = m_held;
      }
    };
 
    template <class T>
    struct maybe_allocate
    {
     private:
 
      alignas(T) char m_buf[sizeof(T)];
      T * m_object = nullptr;
 
     public:
 
      maybe_allocate(const bool allocate, const T & t)
      {
        if (allocate)
          {
            m_object = new (m_buf) T(t);
          }
      }
 
      maybe_allocate(const bool allocate, T && t)
      {
        if (allocate)
          {
            m_object = new (m_buf) T(t);
          }
      }
 
      template <class ... Args>
      maybe_allocate(const bool allocate, Args && ... args)
      {
        if (allocate)
          {
            m_object = new (m_buf) T(std::forward<Args>(args)...);
          }
      }
 
      maybe_allocate(const maybe_allocate & other) : maybe_allocate(other.get())
      {
      }
 
 
      maybe_allocate(maybe_allocate && other) : maybe_allocate(other.get())
      {
      }
 
      maybe_allocate & operator= (const maybe_allocate & other)
      {
        if (&other != this)
          {
            if (m_object != nullptr)
              {
                (*m_object) = other.get();
              }
            else
              {
                m_object = new (m_buf) T(other.get());
              }
          }
        return (*this);
      }
 
 
      maybe_allocate & operator= (maybe_allocate && other)
      {
        if (&other != this)
          {
            if (m_object != nullptr)
              {
                (*m_object) = other.get();
              }
            else
              {
                m_object = new (m_buf) T(other.get());
              }
          }
        return (*this);
      }
 
      ~maybe_allocate()
      {
        if (m_object != nullptr)
          {
            m_object->~T();
          }
      }
 
      bool valid() const
      {
        return m_object != nullptr;
      }
 
      T && get() &&
      {
        return *m_object;
      }
 
      T & get() &
      {
        return *m_object;
      }
 
      const T & get() const &
      {
        return *m_object;
      }
 
      const T * operator ->() const
      {
        return m_object;
      }
 
      T * operator ->()
      {
        return m_object;
      }
 
      operator T & ()
      {
        return *m_object;
      }
 
      operator T && () &&
      {
        return *m_object;
      }
 
      operator const T & () const
      {
        return *m_object;
      }
    };
  }
 
}
 
#endif  // CALORECGPU_HELPERS_H